Biological Systems & Chemical Networks
We are all chemical engines. So, what exactly is a chemical? Chemicals are anything that occupies space in the universe and exist in either a solid, liquid, or gas form – matter! Chemicals within living organisms are considered biochemicals and are organized into chemical networks (an integrated chemical process that establishes life and the maintenance of homeostasis). Homeostasis is simply a scientific term that means maintenance of the status quo. So, a healthy living organism must respond to its environment and manage different threats. The systems that are designed to ensure that the cell remains healthy are called homeostasis. Drugs are also chemicals. Drugs enter an organism and make their way through biological systems to interact with many chemicals. Sometimes those interactions lead to changes in the chemicals with which the drugs interact, altering one’s physiology or psychology. One must have a keen understanding of basic scientific terminology, these chemical networks, and biological systems to create drugs and use them to make a difference in all patient populations. Ready? Let’s get started.
Transcript
Welcome to the n-lorem podcast series. Since I
Dr Stan Crooke:found it n-lorem, I've been involved in many discussions
Dr Stan Crooke:focused on these patients and creating both short and long
Dr Stan Crooke:term solutions to meet the needs of these patients. And I've been
Dr Stan Crooke:deeply touched and impressed by the number and diversity of the
Dr Stan Crooke:people involved, the energy, the progress and the commitment of
Dr Stan Crooke:so many people. It involves many academic scientists and
Dr Stan Crooke:physicians, charitable foundations, parents and
Dr Stan Crooke:patients who are involved. So it really is a very diverse group.
Dr Stan Crooke:I've been particularly impressed with the patients and parents,
Dr Stan Crooke:most of whom have really no basic training in the chemical
Dr Stan Crooke:or biological sciences or medicine, and yet have mastered
Dr Stan Crooke:at least parts of the science and the medicine and achieve
Dr Stan Crooke:really quite remarkable steps. And I think those people are to
Dr Stan Crooke:be especially applauded for their their willingness to
Dr Stan Crooke:commit in their ability to learn what in fact, takes most of us
Dr Stan Crooke:many years of training. I've also been pressed by several
Dr Stan Crooke:notable absences. I've not encountered a single person with
Dr Stan Crooke:any real knowledge or experience in drug discovery and
Dr Stan Crooke:development. And since that's what we are discussing for these
Dr Stan Crooke:patients, that's a critical deficiency. And that is
Dr Stan Crooke:certainly one of the voids that I hope to fill with the series
Dr Stan Crooke:of podcasts that are more lecture like. So given the
Dr Stan Crooke:diversity of those involved in addressing the needs of ultra
Dr Stan Crooke:rare patients, I think there may be some real value in briefly
Dr Stan Crooke:going from the absolutely most basic concepts to what drugs
Dr Stan Crooke:are, what they can and cannot do, and how they come to be. I
Dr Stan Crooke:think this will help assure that we all are coming from the same
Dr Stan Crooke:starting line, and that we are all using are able to use a
Dr Stan Crooke:shared vocabulary. I'm confident that all of you understand some
Dr Stan Crooke:of this and some of you probably understand all of it, and some
Dr Stan Crooke:of you may understand it better than I do. But even for those
Dr Stan Crooke:who are fully informed, I think it is sometimes value to hear
Dr Stan Crooke:the basics from a different perspective. And I hope to give
Dr Stan Crooke:that to you. We will begin with the absolute simplest of ideas
Dr Stan Crooke:that I promise I will quickly enroll you in a masterclass in
Dr Stan Crooke:what is going to be necessary to broadly enhance the treatment of
Dr Stan Crooke:patients with ultra rare disease. Let's begin with this
Dr Stan Crooke:seemingly so simple statement. All drugs are chemicals. And
Dr Stan Crooke:that is true whether you take a prescription medicine, and over
Dr Stan Crooke:the counter medicine, or a mixture of natural products or
Dr Stan Crooke:supplements that you get at a natural food store. Drugs differ
Dr Stan Crooke:from other chemicals only because they are administered to
Dr Stan Crooke:humans or other animals for therapeutic purposes. And by
Dr Stan Crooke:therapeutic purpose, we mean that we want to alter the state
Dr Stan Crooke:of the biological systems that result in characteristics that
Dr Stan Crooke:we see in patients or set another way we plan to alter the
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype of the patient, we plan to convert the disease
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype the patient to a healthier phenotype, which
Dr Stan Crooke:brings me to the word phenotype. A phenotype is a composite set
Dr Stan Crooke:of characteristics that a biological system, in this case,
Dr Stan Crooke:it's a patient, displays at a particular moment, the phenotype
Dr Stan Crooke:of a patient comes to be as a result of the genetic
Dr Stan Crooke:characteristics of the patient, the effects of current
Dr Stan Crooke:environments, and the history of the patient. So the phenotype of
Dr Stan Crooke:a patient today reflects all the experiences the patient has had,
Dr Stan Crooke:and all the previous phenotypes expressed. And the next
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype that will be expressed for that patient will be a
Dr Stan Crooke:consequence of the phenotype that we begin with before we add
Dr Stan Crooke:a drug. And then of course, the addition of a drug. A genotype
Dr Stan Crooke:is the sum total of genetic information patient has, you can
Dr Stan Crooke:think of it as the total genetic capability possible for that
Dr Stan Crooke:patient from which that patient selects those traits that are
Dr Stan Crooke:expressed to create the phenotype that's displayed when
Dr Stan Crooke:the patient comes into our office. The genotype is a
Dr Stan Crooke:product of the genetic information that the patient
Dr Stan Crooke:inherited from his parents, including all the mutations his
Dr Stan Crooke:or her parents had, and any mutations that have happened to
Dr Stan Crooke:the genes of the patient during his life. Almost all drugs, and
Dr Stan Crooke:we'll talk about this extensively, are designed to
Dr Stan Crooke:alter the phenotype of the patient, but not the genotype.
Dr Stan Crooke:On the other hand, when we engage in gene therapy, we're
Dr Stan Crooke:altering the genotype so that a healthier phenotype will be
Dr Stan Crooke:expressed in the ANA cancer group. Dogs are designed or the
Dr Stan Crooke:genotype of cancer cells and CRISPR and gene therapy are ways
Dr Stan Crooke:to alter the genotype as well. So first key point or a key
Dr Stan Crooke:point, drugs are administered to alter the phenotype of patients
Dr Stan Crooke:into healthier phenotypes. Most drugs are designed to alter the
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype without affecting the genotype. And in fact, we work
Dr Stan Crooke:very, very hard to avoid genomic effects because it can often be
Dr Stan Crooke:very toxic. And of course, they last for a lifetime. Gene
Dr Stan Crooke:therapy and CRISPR are ways to create healthier phenotypes by
Dr Stan Crooke:altering the genotype. Okay, so let's back up to even something
Dr Stan Crooke:even simpler, chemicals. So what is a chemical? What do chemicals
Dr Stan Crooke:actually do? And how do biochemicals differ from other
Dr Stan Crooke:chemicals? Our world is made up of molecules that we call
Dr Stan Crooke:chemicals. Each chemical has a unique set of characteristics
Dr Stan Crooke:that establish a unique chemical fingerprint, chemicals vary in
Dr Stan Crooke:size. And the size of a chemical is measured in units that are
Dr Stan Crooke:called Dalton's, abbreviated with a big D, because Dalton was
Dr Stan Crooke:a scientist size can vary from one Dalton to many millions of
Dr Stan Crooke:Dalton's. Chemicals can be positively or negatively
Dr Stan Crooke:charged, or they can have no net charge at all, they can be
Dr Stan Crooke:neutral. Of course, we then have all kinds of drugs that have
Dr Stan Crooke:different charges as well. Charge density is the pattern of
Dr Stan Crooke:charge over the surface of a chemical. Chemicals can be water
Dr Stan Crooke:soluble, and scientists refer to that as hydro – water, philic –
Dr Stan Crooke:liking water liking, or soluble and fat or lipids. And
Dr Stan Crooke:scientists refer to that as lipo, fat philic. Liking fat,
Dr Stan Crooke:like some chemicals are called amphipathic. Those chemicals
Dr Stan Crooke:dissolve in both water and lipids. And if you were to have
Dr Stan Crooke:a test tube with water and oil in it, and you shook it up, the
Dr Stan Crooke:amphipathic chemicals would be found at the interface between
Dr Stan Crooke:water and the oil. So all of those characteristics and many
Dr Stan Crooke:more that I haven't gone into form a composite set of
Dr Stan Crooke:characteristics for that chemical, and it creates a three
Dr Stan Crooke:dimensional pattern for that chemical. The three dimensional
Dr Stan Crooke:pattern for each chemical is different is unique to that
Dr Stan Crooke:chemical, every nanosecond chemicals engage in a myriad of
Dr Stan Crooke:pattern recognition events with other chemicals. These pattern
Dr Stan Crooke:recognition events begin with a collision between two chemicals
Dr Stan Crooke:or more. The frequency of collisions between two chemicals
Dr Stan Crooke:is a function of the concentrations or the number of
Dr Stan Crooke:molecules per unit volume of each of the chemicals. So when
Dr Stan Crooke:two chemicals collide, and they have appropriate three
Dr Stan Crooke:dimensional patterns, then they can produce a chemical reaction.
Dr Stan Crooke:In a chemical reaction, the two chemicals that began the
Dr Stan Crooke:reaction are changed, and they become what's called products.
Dr Stan Crooke:Chemical reaction then, is a critical component of life. So
Dr Stan Crooke:this brings us to another key point. Each chemical has a three
Dr Stan Crooke:dimensional unique pattern. Chemical reactions begin with
Dr Stan Crooke:the collision between two or more chemicals. Thus all
Dr Stan Crooke:chemical reactions are concentration dependent; drugs
Dr Stan Crooke:or chemicals. So the effects of drugs must be concentration
Dr Stan Crooke:dependent and they certainly are. We often adjust the
Dr Stan Crooke:concentration of a drug in a patient or animal by adjusting
Dr Stan Crooke:the dose, and we adjust the dose to adjust the concentration to
Dr Stan Crooke:that which we want to produce the specific effects. Some
Dr Stan Crooke:chemicals are essential for life and create biological systems.
Dr Stan Crooke:And we call those chemicals bio chemicals, but they're really
Dr Stan Crooke:just chemicals that we find interesting because they result
Dr Stan Crooke:in who and what we are. Okay. A biological system is a set of
Dr Stan Crooke:networks of chemicals and chemical reactions that result
Dr Stan Crooke:in biological behavior. All animals are of course comprised
Dr Stan Crooke:of cells. Of course, you know that, but have you ever asked
Dr Stan Crooke:why evolution bothered creating cells? Well, it's pretty simple.
Dr Stan Crooke:You can think of cells as tiny bags water in which the
Dr Stan Crooke:chemicals required for life are concentrated sufficiently to
Dr Stan Crooke:support biological activity. So cells are a means to concentrate
Dr Stan Crooke:the chemicals you need in a way that allows them to produce
Dr Stan Crooke:chemical reactions that support life. Our cells are protected
Dr Stan Crooke:from the environment by a very complex, constantly changing
Dr Stan Crooke:barrier. That's called the plasma membrane. It's composed
Dr Stan Crooke:of fats or lipids, and sometimes and some lipids that have a
Dr Stan Crooke:negatively charged phosphate. They're called phospho, lipids
Dr Stan Crooke:and then various proteins are integrated in and out of that
Dr Stan Crooke:plasma membrane. So the next key point cells concentrate the
Dr Stan Crooke:concentration of chemicals, so that biochemical reactions can
Dr Stan Crooke:be put induced that lead to life cells perform several functions.
Dr Stan Crooke:They integrate all the chemicals and the chemical reactions into
Dr Stan Crooke:complex networks that create then the phenotype of that cell.
Dr Stan Crooke:Or in the case of a patient, the phenotype of that patient, they
Dr Stan Crooke:constantly sense and respond to the environment by adjusting
Dr Stan Crooke:their phenotypes. They are then integrated with other cells of
Dr Stan Crooke:various types to create organs, and each organ has its own
Dr Stan Crooke:general set of functions. And they come together to create us
Dr Stan Crooke:to allow us to manage our life, the organs and fluids of the
Dr Stan Crooke:body are integrated then into an even more complex set of
Dr Stan Crooke:networks that are organized in a hierarchical way. And out of all
Dr Stan Crooke:those sets of chemicals and chemical interactions is created
Dr Stan Crooke:a composite set of behaviors. And that's the patient we see.
Dr Stan Crooke:That's the patient's phenotype. And, of course, the phenotype of
Dr Stan Crooke:anyone or any cell animal person, patient of various, you
Dr Stan Crooke:know, second by second, depending on how he's responding
Dr Stan Crooke:to the environment. Finally, most cells also have to
Dr Stan Crooke:replicate in an orderly way. So they play cells that die of the
Dr Stan Crooke:same type. And so they have to have a process and allows them
Dr Stan Crooke:to make new cells or daughter cells, brings us to the next key
Dr Stan Crooke:point, you and I are simply incredibly complex networks of
Dr Stan Crooke:biochemicals about chemical reactions that create the
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype that we recognize, when we look at ourselves in the
Dr Stan Crooke:mirror. Many important biological chemicals are in fact
Dr Stan Crooke:polymers. Polymer, of course, means many units poly many units
Dr Stan Crooke:mer. One important type of polymer is proteins. The
Dr Stan Crooke:building blocks of proteins are called amino acids. And for
Dr Stan Crooke:simplicity, you can think of each of those building blocks or
Dr Stan Crooke:amino acids as being about 100 Daltons. Pretty small. But when
Dr Stan Crooke:they're strung together, as polymers, they become proteins.
Dr Stan Crooke:And they can become very, very large. Typically, we think of a
Dr Stan Crooke:protein is ranging, say, from 10,000 Dalton's to hundreds of
Dr Stan Crooke:1000s, and sometimes millions of Daltons. And so you can imagine
Dr Stan Crooke:how big those molecules are, they've taken literally 1000s
Dr Stan Crooke:and 1000s of amino acids and put them together sometimes you can
Dr Stan Crooke:imagine then how complex the three dimensional pattern of a
Dr Stan Crooke:protein must be. And that's going to be an important thing
Dr Stan Crooke:to remember as we go forward. Another important set of
Dr Stan Crooke:polymers are nucleic acids, the building blocks of nucleic acids
Dr Stan Crooke:are called nucleotides. And you can think of them as being about
Dr Stan Crooke:300 Dalton's in size, larger than an amino acid, but still
Dr Stan Crooke:pretty small. These building blocks are strung together
Dr Stan Crooke:through negatively charged phosphate groups. And since
Dr Stan Crooke:phosphates are negatively charged, these molecules behave
Dr Stan Crooke:as acids. That is, if you apply a electrical field to a solution
Dr Stan Crooke:of nucleic acids, they migrate toward the positive pole. And
Dr Stan Crooke:that's why they're called nucleic acids. Now, there are
Dr Stan Crooke:two nucleic acids that matter. DNA is a giant polymer made up
Dr Stan Crooke:of millions, many millions of nucleotides, and RNA is the
Dr Stan Crooke:other nucleic acid, polymer. And most RNAs are typically 1000s of
Dr Stan Crooke:nucleotides in size. So now let's go back to cells, cells
Dr Stan Crooke:are organized like modern corporations, each cell has a
Dr Stan Crooke:set of employees that do the work in the cell. For our
Dr Stan Crooke:purposes, you can think of the working molecules as proteins,
Dr Stan Crooke:these are the workers there in you know, the shop actually
Dr Stan Crooke:making the products. The polymers then that we think of
Dr Stan Crooke:this proteins are made up of amino acids. Now there are only
Dr Stan Crooke:basic amino acids. So you can think of proteins as using the
Dr Stan Crooke:language of amino acids. And the amino acid language is pretty
Dr Stan Crooke:darn complex. It's almost as complex as English in which we
Dr Stan Crooke:use 26 letters. The information management system of the cell is
Dr Stan Crooke:quite different. It's comprised of polymers we call nucleic
Dr Stan Crooke:acid, DNA and RNA. And of course, you know that the
Dr Stan Crooke:nucleic acid language is much simpler. It just has four
Dr Stan Crooke:letters A, T, or U, C, and G. And you know, that set of
Dr Stan Crooke:letters is used in both DNA and in RNA. So this is a vastly,
Dr Stan Crooke:vastly simpler language than the language of amino acids or
Dr Stan Crooke:proteins. You can think of it as almost as simple as the Morse
Dr Stan Crooke:code. And, as I mentioned, the DNA in your cell is just almost
Dr Stan Crooke:unbelievably large. It said that if you stretch the DNA in a
Dr Stan Crooke:single cell, single one cell out fully, it would be several
Dr Stan Crooke:meters long. Now, DNA is used to store genetic information and
Dr Stan Crooke:the information encoded in your DNA is your genotype. Because
Dr Stan Crooke:the DNA in every cell is so large, the file has to be
Dr Stan Crooke:compressed. And it's compressed into structures called
Dr Stan Crooke:chromatin. And during cell division, they get them sorted
Dr Stan Crooke:out into different things called chromosomes. Humans have 23
Dr Stan Crooke:chromosomes, that information in the DNA has to be stored and
Dr Stan Crooke:protected at all costs. I mean, this is who you are, and you
Dr Stan Crooke:need to protect it yourself. And so you and I, and all the rest
Dr Stan Crooke:of us have just a remarkable set of very complex systems that are
Dr Stan Crooke:designed to protect our DNA, and to repair damage. Now, damage
Dr Stan Crooke:can happen, because we encounter very reactive chemicals that can
Dr Stan Crooke:damage DNA, many of them are just the products of life, just
Dr Stan Crooke:the biochemical reactions we do, and then others you can
Dr Stan Crooke:encounter in your environment. For example, if you go to the
Dr Stan Crooke:beach and sit in the sun and have UV light. A change in a DNA
Dr Stan Crooke:that isn't corrected by one of those systems, is permanent,
Dr Stan Crooke:that's called a mutation, you tend to think of mutations is
Dr Stan Crooke:all bad, that's not true. There are many mutations that can be
Dr Stan Crooke:beneficial to the cell. And if there is a mutation that's
Dr Stan Crooke:beneficial to that cell, that cell then will outgrow the other
Dr Stan Crooke:cells that don't have it, you'll end up with a bias batch of
Dr Stan Crooke:cells that we would call a clone. The other way mutations
Dr Stan Crooke:can happen is when the genetic information is copied. And you
Dr Stan Crooke:can think of these mutations as really just typographical
Dr Stan Crooke:mistakes, and you make a copy of DNA, when you're getting ready
Dr Stan Crooke:to make a new cell, you also make partial copies of a lot of
Dr Stan Crooke:your different parts of your DNA when you need to express a
Dr Stan Crooke:specific phenotype. So it is an error prone system, it just is.
Dr Stan Crooke:And so once again, you have a lot of systems in place that
Dr Stan Crooke:follow the typewriter and correct the mistakes that are
Dr Stan Crooke:made, mistakes that are corrected, become mutations. So,
Dr Stan Crooke:how is the information in DNA using course you know this, but
Dr Stan Crooke:I'll just walk through this very quickly. When it's time to use
Dr Stan Crooke:the information in a particular gene, that information is
Dr Stan Crooke:converted to RNA. And if it's an RNA designed to make a protein
Dr Stan Crooke:that's called messenger RNA. And RNA uses exactly the basically
Dr Stan Crooke:the same four letter code that DNA does. So that process is
Dr Stan Crooke:transcription. That's exactly what it is, you're transcribing
Dr Stan Crooke:a part of the information in your DNA. Now, if the
Dr Stan Crooke:information in the RNA is to be used to make a protein, then the
Dr Stan Crooke:nucleic acid language has to be converted to the much, much more
Dr Stan Crooke:complex language of proteins, the amino acid language. And so
Dr Stan Crooke:that process is called translation. And that's exactly
Dr Stan Crooke:what's happening. And yourself, you're taking this information
Dr Stan Crooke:in one language, the Morse code of your genetics and converting
Dr Stan Crooke:it to the English of your proteins. Translation. The
Dr Stan Crooke:reasons these words are used by scientists, is that's exactly
Dr Stan Crooke:what they mean. So polymers, key points are critically important
Dr Stan Crooke:for biological systems, each cell stores genotype information
Dr Stan Crooke:carefully. And when it needs to use some of that information.
Dr Stan Crooke:And RNA molecule is made. When that RNA is made, that's called
Dr Stan Crooke:transcription. And then if that RNA is to be used to make
Dr Stan Crooke:protein information has to be translated in your cell to make
Dr Stan Crooke:the specific protein. Now, drugs are used to alter biological
Dr Stan Crooke:systems. Let me just say that, again, drugs are used to alter
Dr Stan Crooke:biological system. Yes, it is conceptually possible today, I
Dr Stan Crooke:suppose that we could synthesize a new gene, and that could then
Dr Stan Crooke:generate new biology. But in most cases, today's drugs are
Dr Stan Crooke:used to alter biological systems, they don't create new
Dr Stan Crooke:biology. They alter the biology that you are practicing before
Dr Stan Crooke:when you take the drug. And so the other way to think of the
Dr Stan Crooke:drugs is it alters the composite set of characteristics that are
Dr Stan Crooke:a product of all these gazillion networks in the body to generate
Dr Stan Crooke:a new composite set of characteristics. Or said another
Dr Stan Crooke:way, drugs are used to alter a phenotype that we think of as
Dr Stan Crooke:diseased into a new phenotype that we think of as healthier.
Dr Stan Crooke:So I want to slow here just a minute and make a point that I
Dr Stan Crooke:think is far too often overlooked. Even if a drug were
Dr Stan Crooke:perfectly specific, and there is no such thing. And by that, I
Dr Stan Crooke:mean that we have, we're using that drug for one specific
Dr Stan Crooke:desired effect, and it does absolutely nothing else in the
Dr Stan Crooke:body than just that, even if it's that specific and there has
Dr Stan Crooke:never been a drug that specific. Even that perfect drug will
Dr Stan Crooke:alter the composite of all those networks in ways that at the
Dr Stan Crooke:present time, are still unpredictable. So there's no
Dr Stan Crooke:free ride with any drug, even a perfect drug produces a myriad
Dr Stan Crooke:of changes in phenotype that are not today, predictable. Equally
Dr Stan Crooke:important is the fact that the networks that create a specific
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotypes, let's say a diseased patient, are unique to that
Dr Stan Crooke:patient. And they create a biological environment with
Dr Stan Crooke:which that drug interacts. And so that means that the effects
Dr Stan Crooke:of drugs are often very different in patients with
Dr Stan Crooke:diseases compared to healthy patients, and the severity of
Dr Stan Crooke:disease also can change the effects of the drug remarkably,
Dr Stan Crooke:and so I just can't emphasize enough how tremendously
Dr Stan Crooke:important these concepts are, as we think about how to help
Dr Stan Crooke:patients with ultra rare disease, they can't be ignored.
Dr Stan Crooke:Yes, when you give a specific drug or chemical or agent,
Dr Stan Crooke:you're giving it to do a particular job, that its effects
Dr Stan Crooke:will be defined by all its properties, and the nature of
Dr Stan Crooke:the person who takes it. This becomes particularly important
Dr Stan Crooke:in gene therapy. Because of course, with gene therapy, we
Dr Stan Crooke:are trying to result in a permanent change in the genome,
Dr Stan Crooke:which could mean a permanent change in all the phenotypes.
Dr Stan Crooke:And so that would be great if you get only what you want. But
Dr Stan Crooke:what happens if you get what you want, plus a whole bunch of
Dr Stan Crooke:other things. So in sum, then, biological systems generate a
Dr Stan Crooke:phenotype by integrating an incredibly complex array of
Dr Stan Crooke:chemical reactions into progressively more complex
Dr Stan Crooke:networks. These networks determine the phenotype that one
Dr Stan Crooke:presents at a particular moment, phenotypes change constantly or
Dr Stan Crooke:in response to the environment. And when we administer a drug,
Dr Stan Crooke:we administer a drug into a biological system. And, and the
Dr Stan Crooke:effects of the drug can vary as a function of the nature of that
Dr Stan Crooke:biological system. We see very different effects sometimes in
Dr Stan Crooke:patients who are diseased and we constantly worry about how the
Dr Stan Crooke:effects of a drug may change as the patient progresses in their
Dr Stan Crooke:disease. important concepts to think about. In the next podcast
Dr Stan Crooke:will now take another step in complexity, and begin to think
Dr Stan Crooke:about drugs in much more detail.
Narrator:n-lorem is a nonprofit committed to discovering and
Narrator:providing personalized experimental treatments for free
Narrator:for life to patients with genetic diseases that affect one
Narrator:to 30 patients worldwide, referred to by n-lorem as nano
Narrator:rare. Many of these patients progress and die without ever
Narrator:achieving a diagnosis. This is where n-lorem comes in. They do
Narrator:the impossible by providing hope, and for those that they
Narrator:can help, free lifetime treatment. For more information
Narrator:about n-lorem or today's episode, visit nlorem.org any
Narrator:questions can be sent into podcast@nlorem.org search
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Narrator:to connect with us. Please rate and review the podcast on Apple,
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Narrator:by Dr. Stan Crooke. Our videographer is John Magnussen
Narrator:of Mighty One productions. Our producers are John Magnuson and
Narrator:Kira Dineen of DNA today. Thank you for listening
